Rights – Awaam India http://awaam.net We, the People of India Mon, 08 Apr 2019 20:17:06 +0000 en-US hourly 1 #?v=4.9.12 https://i2.wp.com/awaam.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/cropped-icon.png?fit=32%2C32 Rights – Awaam India http://awaam.net 32 32 106174354 White nationalism, born in the USA, is now a global terror threat /white-nationalism-born-in-the-usa-is-now-a-global-terror-threat/ /white-nationalism-born-in-the-usa-is-now-a-global-terror-threat/#respond Thu, 21 Mar 2019 13:30:41 +0000 /?p=3064 Art Jipson and Paul J. Becker The recent massacre of 50 Muslim worshippers at two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand is the latest confirmation that

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Art Jipson and Paul J. Becker

The recent massacre of 50 Muslim worshippers at two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand is the latest confirmation that white supremacy is a danger to democratic societies across the globe.

Despite President Donald Trump’s suggestion that white nationalist terrorism is not a major problem, recent data from the United Nations, University of Chicago and other sources show the opposite.

As more people embrace a xenophobic and anti-immigrant worldview, it is fueling hostility and violence toward those deemed “outsiders” – whether because of their religion, skin color or national origin.

Transnational violence

Most of the Western world – from Switzerland and Germany to the United States, Scandinavia and New Zealand – has witnessed a potent nationalist strain infecting society in recent years.

Driven by fear over the loss of white primacy, white nationalists believe that white identity should be the organizing principle of Western society.

“Every people in the world can have their own country except white people,” the American Freedom Party’s William Daniel Johnson told the Chicago Sun Times after the New Zealand attack. “We should have white ethno-states.”

In researching our upcoming book on extremism – our joint area of academic expertise – we found that hate crimes have risen alongside the global spread of white nationalism. Racist attacks on refugees, immigrants, Muslims and Jews are increasing worldwide at an alarming rate.

Scholars studying the internationalization of hate crimes call this dangerous phenomenon “violent transnationalism.”

In Europe, white violence appears to have been triggered by the sudden increase, in 2015, of refugees fleeing war in Syria and elsewhere in the Middle East.

Ultra-nationalists across the continent – including politicians at the highest rungs of power – used the influx as evidence of the imminent “cultural genocide” of white people.

White nationalism is a US export

This disturbing international trend, in its modern incarnation, was born in the United States.

Since the 1970s, a small, vocal cadre of American white supremacists have sought to export their ideology of hate. Avowed racists like Ku Klux Klan wizard David Duke, Aryan Nations founder Richard Butler and extremist author William Pierce believe the white race is under attack worldwide by a cultural invasion of immigrants and people of color.

The United States is diversifying, but it remains 77 percent white. White supremacists, however, have long contended that the country’s demographic changes will lead to an extermination of the white race and culture.

The “alt-right” – an umbrella term describing modern online white supremacist movement – uses the same language. And it has expanded this 20th-century xenophobic worldview to portray refugees, Muslims and progressives as a threat, too.

Alt-right leaders like Richard Spencer, extremist Jared Taylor and the Neo-Nazi Daily Stormer editor Andrew Anglin also use social media to share their ideology and recruit members across borders.

They have found a global audience of white supremacists who, in turn, have also used the internet to share their ideas, encourage violence and broadcast their hate crimes worldwide.

“The hatred that led to violence in Pittsburgh and Charlottesville is finding new adherents around the world,” Jonathan Greenblatt of the Anti-Defamation League, a civil liberties watchdog, told USA Today after the New Zealand attack.

“Indeed, it appears that this attack was not just focused on New Zealand; it was intended to have a global impact.”

Rising racist violence

We know the alleged New Zealand mosque shooter’s hatred of Muslims was inspired by American white nationalism – he said so on Twitter.

His online “manifesto” includes references to cultural conflicts that the author believed would eventually lead the United States to separate along ethnic, political and racial lines.

The alleged attacker also wrote that he supports President Donald Trump “as a symbol of renewed white identity.”

Trump and other right-wing politicians like French presidential candidate Marine Le Pen and Dutch opposition leader Geert Wilders have blamed the very real problems of modern life – growing economic instability, rising inequality and industrial decay – on immigrants and people of color.

That narrative has added further hostility into the existing undercurrent of intolerance in increasingly multicultural societies like the United States.

Hate crimes against Muslims, immigrants and people of color have been on the rise in the U.S. since 2014.

In 2015, the Southern Poverty Law Center documented 892 hate crimes. The next year, it counted 917 hate crimes. In 2017 – the year Trump took office stoking nationalist sentiment with promises to build walls, deport Mexicans and ban Muslims – the U.S. saw 954 white supremacist attacks.

One of them was a violent clash between counterprotesters and white nationalists over the removal of a confederate statue in Charlottesville, Virginia. The 2017 “Unite the Right” rally, which killed one person and injured dozens, amplified the ideas of modern white nationalists nationally and worldwide.

Last year, white nationalists killed at least 50 people in the United States. Their victims included 11 worshippers at a Pittsburgh synagogue, two elderly black shoppers in a Kroger parking lot in Kentucky and two women practicing yoga in Florida.

The years 2015, 2016 and 2018 were the United States’ deadliest years for extremist violence since 1970, according to the Anti-Defamation League.

All perpetrators of deadly extremist violence in the U.S. in 2018 had links to white nationalist groups. That made 2018 “a particularly active year for right-wing extremist murders,” the Anti-Defamation League says.

Nationalist terror is a danger to the domestic security of the United States and, evidence shows, a global terror threat that endangers the very nature of global democratic society.The Conversation

Art Jipson, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Dayton and Paul J. Becker, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Dayton

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Photo Description: A protester holds a sign reading “White supremacy is terrorism” at a march in New York City, August 13, 2017. (Reuters / Joe Penney)

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Why banning controversial voices from universities is bad practice /banning-controversial-voices-universities-bad-practice/ /banning-controversial-voices-universities-bad-practice/#respond Sat, 09 Mar 2019 14:41:38 +0000 /?p=3059 Nuraan Davids and Yusef Waghid Two years ago the University of Cape Town (UCT) “disinvited” Flemming Rose from giving its annual T.B. Davie Academic Freedom

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Nuraan Davids and Yusef Waghid

Two years ago the University of Cape Town (UCT) “disinvited” Flemming Rose from giving its annual T.B. Davie Academic Freedom Lecture. Rose is the cultural editor of the Danish publication, Jyllands-Posten that depicted the Prophet Muhammad in cartoons.

The term disinvited was coined by the American-based Foundation for Individual Rights in Education. It refers to speakers who have been disinvited after being invited to speak at universities. Between 2000 and 2017, the foundation had found 192 incidents in which students or members of university staff had pushed for speakers to be disinvited.

In rescinding the invitation, UCT’s former vice-chancellor, Dr Max Price, invoked the language of “safe spaces” and asserted that bringing Rose to campus:

might retard rather than advance academic freedom on campus.

Last year the Stellenbosch University found itself in a similar situation when a group of Israeli scholars withdrew from a planned conference. They cited feelings of inhospitality and exclusion. In this instance, after meeting with the South African Jewish Board of Deputies, the university’s vice-chancellor, stated that:

As a research-intensive university of global significance, we continue to welcome academics from all over the world at Stellenbosch University -– including scholars from Israel -– and co-create excellent research with significant social and academic impact.

This conundrum is being faced by universities across the world. In 2017 a survey of 115 UK universities showed that 54% actively censored speech, 40% stifled speech through excessive regulation. Only 6% were deemed truly free, open places.

In Australia, the Institute of Public Affair’s Free Speech on Campus Audit 2017 showed that the majority of Australian universities limit the diversity of ideas on campus. For example, 34 out of the country’s 42 universities (81%) have policies and actions that are hostile to free speech on campus and seven (17%) have policies and actions that threaten free speech on campus. Only eight of Australia’s 42 universities (19%) have an explicit policy that protects intellectual freedom.

In principle, academic freedom infers that both staff and students at universities have the right to participate in intellectual engagement and debate, without fear of censorship. This right extends into speech, writing (textual or digital), without fear of reprisal.

In this sense, academic freedom is akin to the preservation of intellectual autonomy. Yet, as the two South African examples show, speakers being disinvited is not uncommon in South African universities.

We argue strongly against the practice in our latest book on free speech at universities. We do so on the grounds that disinvitation compromises the very idea of human engagement and deliberation. This is because the act of disinviting an individual, for whatever reason, is in itself an abandonment of freedom and speech.

It not only stifles any opportunity for engagement with difference or controversy, but it implies that academic freedom is the preserve of those who are in agreement. If we are all in agreement, then where is the debate, and new ways of thinking?

Academic freedom is necessary for democracy

Firstly, regulating hurtful speech without re-signifying it, that is creating opportunities where harmful speech is challenged and re-directed, can aggravate the volatility between groups that favour controversy – and those who oppose it.

If controversial speakers are denied opportunities to speak at universities, it can be claimed that their right to freedom of speech has been hampered. Universities need to guard against what the Times Higher Education refers to as becoming “hotbeds of left wing bias”, or “political monocultures”.

Universities can’t be considered “safe places” where controversial ideas of people are considered at odds with liberal and or radical voices and deserve to be stunted.

Secondly, when controversy is opened up, people have an opportunity to scrutinise the controversial statements and find ways to rebut dissenting and provocative claims. Regulating speech doesn’t imply that speakers of harmful speech merely abandon their views. It simply means that their views are left unchallenged, and undisrupted. We argue that this deepens the already inhumane and undignified actions of some people even further.

Contestation is important for democracy

Universities shouldn’t cultivate intolerance towards dissent. Rather they ought to instil in students and lecturers capacities to appreciate divergent views. Universities need to create the conditions and safe spaces for people to cross-over into the unfamiliar and the controversial. The implications at play here are not only in relation to the academic well-being of a university, they also affect our understanding of a democratic society.

The real question is: what kinds of students, and hence society, do universities want to produce? Students need to learn that the relationship between knowledge and power can be emancipatory. Intolerance and exclusion, for example, can only be allayed if people have access to knowledge.

Academic freedom, therefore, is not only about unconstrained speech. It is also about questioning peoples’ worldviews, so that they can consider other ways of thinking, and bring into contestation what’s familiar, known and readily accepted.The Conversation

Nuraan Davids, Associate Professor of Philosophy of Education, Stellenbosch University and Yusef Waghid, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy of Education, Stellenbosch University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Header Image credits: iStock

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Amnesty International, India issues press note on govt.’s heckling with the Rights organisation /amnesty-international-india-issues-press-note-govt-s-heckling-rights-organisation/ /amnesty-international-india-issues-press-note-govt-s-heckling-rights-organisation/#respond Sun, 28 Oct 2018 08:34:39 +0000 /?p=2987 On 26th October 2018, Amnesty International, India Chapter has issued a press note on the recent unfolding of events that treats human rights efforts

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On 26th October 2018, Amnesty International, India Chapter has issued a press note on the recent unfolding of events that treats human rights efforts as criminal affairs in the country. The Amnesty in its press note has highlighted the government’s effort to turn Rights organisation in to economic and financial limbo. The press note reads:

Government Of India Treating Human Rights Organisations Like Criminal Enterprises

By Amnesty International India
Bengaluru/Delhi: 26 October 2018 11:07 am

Amnesty India’s bank accounts have been frozen by the Enforcement Directorate, effectively stopping our work. Amnesty India is thus the latest target of the government’s assault on civil society in the country. The accounts of Greenpeace India were frozen earlier this month.

“Government authorities are increasingly treating human rights organisations like criminal enterprises”, said Aakar Patel. “As an organisation committed to the rule of law, our operations in India have always conformed with our national regulations. The principles of transparency and accountability are at the heart of our work.”

Around 1:30 pm on 25 October, a group of officers from the Enforcement Directorate entered our premises and locked the gates behind them. They ordered the Amnesty India staff to remain in office, shut their laptops, and not use their mobile phones.

The focus of the Enforcement Directorate’s questioning was the relationship between two entities: Amnesty International India Pvt Ltd and Amnesty International India Foundation.

Most of the documents asked for during the search were available in the public domain or were already filed with the relevant authorities. Details of our current structure, which was the focus of much of the questioning, have been available on our website since 2014.

However, ahead of the raids, the Indian authorities leaked a cache of their internal documents marked “secret” that appear to cast Amnesty India’s operations as a dark web of intrigue.

“Our work in India, as elsewhere, is to uphold and fight for universal human rights. These are the same values that are enshrined in the Indian Constitution and flow from a long and rich Indian tradition of pluralism, tolerance and dissent,” said Aakar Patel.

“We could not agree more with the Prime Minister when he says that periods of repression, like during the Emergency, have left a stain on India’s history. Sadly, those dark days are now casting a shadow over India again. Instead of protecting human rights, as it vowed to do, the government is now targeting the people who fight for them”, said Aakar Patel.

Over 40 lakh Indians have supported Amnesty India’s work over the last six years and around one lakh Indians have made a financial contribution.

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Gandhi: The Great Dissenter /2953-2/ /2953-2/#respond Tue, 16 Oct 2018 19:38:08 +0000 /?p=2953 by Parvez Alam India is losing the great tradition of ‘spirit of inquiry and dissent’ which we cherished in the past as the progressive

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by Parvez Alam

India is losing the great tradition of ‘spirit of inquiry and dissent’ which we cherished in the past as the progressive history of cultural tolerance and harmony. In today’s India, the political parties in power and opposition are eyeing human individuals as potential voters and trying to woo them by spreading untruths and rumors. Indian society by and large needs introspection and learn from an icon of 20th century who shown us the path of wisdom, non-violence and peace. Gandhi cherished the heterodoxy and learned from the great tradition of dissent.

“In yet another instance of alleged cow vigilantism, a 28-year-old Muslim man was beaten to death in Rajasthan’s (one of the states of India) Alwar district”, reported a national daily, The Hindu in July, 2018. India is now not only the land of Gandhi but it is also the place of mob killers and cow vigilantes.

The regime in power is fueling these mobs by justifying untruth and spreading prejudices and stereotype about minorities. The culture of harmony, tolerance and peace which India has been preaching to the world is succumbing to the contrarian conceptions such as lynching, intolerance and rumor mongering. The traditions of critical inquiry, doubt and argumentation is degrading from the map of India’s cultural history.

India celebrated birth anniversary of her father of nation, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on 2nd October this year. Gandhi, a revered leader, led the mass struggle for Independence from the British Raj and dominated the political life of the nation for more than three decades in 1920s to late 1950s and also inspired the generations of leaders all over the world including Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela.

A graduate of law from London and vaishya by caste from Kathiawad (now in the Indian state of Gujarat) had the massive influence of religious ideals of love, peace and harmony available in the ancient Vedas to the Bible, the Quran and other mystic tradition. Gandhi didn’t believe in the rigidity of cultures and traditions and always preached the confluence of ideas as well as generating fresh and new progressive cultures of non-violence and peace.

Gandhi was shot dead by one of the Hindu radicals in 1948. His name was Nathuram Godse. The organization which celebrated the death of Gandhi and distributed sweets openly in the Indian streets,  the RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh), a cultural organization established in 1925 was banned immediately on the recommendations of the then Home Minister, Sardar Patel, also a Gujarati like Gandhi and is being revered now by the same outfit. Godse, a member of Hindu Mahasabha and many other organisation shared the idea of militant Hinduism (Hindutva), which Vinayak Damodar Savarkar espoused in the beginning of 1920s.

In 2014, Narendra Modi, the leader of Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) rose to become a national leader by winning majority of the seats in general election and becoming a prime minister. His involvement in the genocidal riots in Gujarat against religious minorities (Muslims) led United States and other European states to ban Modi’s visit in their respective countries.

Paradoxes of Indian Politics

The irony of our times is that, those who muzzle the dissent are celebrating the birth anniversary of one of the greatest dissenters of all time. Modi’s arrival on national scene has given free hand to the mobs and foot soldiers of his party and affiliate organisation to target violently minorities, Dalits (outcaste/untouchables) and tribals everywhere. From beef ban to the temple politics, it is the rule of mob which has been given shelter by the so called liberally graduated leaders within BJP to polarise votes as a compulsion to win election in one of the diverse country. Once cherished ideals of unity and diversity and the history of composite culture has eroded and society has become more fascistic and authoritarian.

Gandhi’s solutions

To fight (non-violently) is to dissent. To agree is to conform to the existing ideologies, norms, cultures and traditions. Agreeing on nonsensical or irrational things leads towards insanity. The entire history of freedom struggle in the Indian subcontinent is the history of dissent. The non-cooperation was not only dissent in terms of thought but it was call for truth and dissent-in-action.

Gandhi to whom we know as preacher of non-violence (ahimsa) and call for truth (satyagraha) was one of the greatest subversive actor in the world. His shaming of British Raj by wearing loin cloth in the peak of British winter during Round Table Conference (1931) is epitome of subversive action. After the meeting with British Emperor a reporter asked Gandhi if he didn’t feel ashamed to stand in front of the Emperor in his simple dress. ‘Why should I feel ashamed? The Emperor was wearing enough clothes for both of us.’ said Gandhi.

Gandhi’s training since childhood as a religious and ascetic person didn’t halt his critical outlook and curiosity to know different cultures and traditions. One of the basic principles of any dissenting opinion is openness of thought process. One should not restrict oneself in knowing things which is not subscribed by the co-religious or fellow community member.

Restricting any kind of flow of information/knowledge/thought also restricts the persons becoming of an autonomous being. This makes Gandhi an anarchist because customary rules, norms and state-made-laws prohibits him to transcend his boundaries of thinking and his action. He would rather utilize the availability of maximum freedom to cross the boundaries to do creative things for social change. The subversiveness leads towards progressiveness.

In one of the response to a reader in Hind Swaraj (1909), Gandhi says, “I do not expect my views to be accepted all of a sudden”. By this what he meant was, every viewpoint need to go through critical questioning. In Gandhian understanding of swaraj (self-rule) is inherent the conception of individual freedom and free thinking.

Remember Gandhi breaking one of the draconian Salt Laws to realize purna swaraj (complete rule) in March of 1930. With him marched satyagrahis, old and young, men and women hand in hand together.  Gandhi’s bold defiance of the salt law encouraged other Indians to break the law as well. Was Gandhi not disobeying the existing system of laws which were punitive and draconian? Certainly he did. But it was also dissent-in-action which propelled him to transgress the inhumane conditions, where human beings were deprived of their basic needs such as salt.

Should I also not ask critical questions if deprived of my basic needs? Not doing that will amount to erasure of our history of protests, dissents and oppositions. But as reality faced by the civil society members and activists in contemporary times indicate that ‘asking tough and difficult question’ may put me behind bars and I can be branded as anti-party, anti-government, anti-national, anti-state (though all are different things) or clubbing together under an umbrella term called ‘urban naxals’.

By 1909 in Hind Swaraj, Gandhi evaluating the Mazzini-Garibaldi question in regards to Italy’s freedom, is of the view that the Mazzini’s dream of every man in Italy ruling himself has not been materialized even though Italy is independent fore than five decades. For Gandhi who stressed more on means than end is critical of Garibaldi taking up arms and encouraging all Italians to join him in pushing Austria out of their territory.

The gain out of arms struggle (means) is nominal and hence the replacement of Austrian rule is nothing but the tyranny of government (end). Gandhi had argument with Aruna Asaf Ali over means and end question during ‘Quit India’ movement, 1942. Aruna Asaf Ali was in support of milder violence. She justified hiding of revolutionaries to escape arrest. Gandhi on the other hand was firm in his belief that the end of these activities wouldn’t last long, we may achieve our goals. After 110 years of Hind Swaraj and his reflection on Mazzini-Garibaldi debate, India is congruently similar if we reflect the contemporary times within Gandhian credo. Gandhi’s vision of true freedom has not been materialized though India is independent state for more than seven decades.

Way forward

We didn’t have many more anarchist and supporters of dissent in post-independent India, what Gandhi would have supported these ideals, if alive for 125 years (his wish to live long, was stopped with Godse’s bullets.). For him brutal industrialization and marketization is similar to violent action which uproots the flora and fauna and dehumanizes the working class, which needs to be condemned (dissent-in-words).

Without balancing with nature and environment, development do not have any meaning. For Gandhi means is more important than end. The running after GDP in terms of becoming trillion dollar economy and widening gap between rich and poor is nothing but a colonial mindset of loot, control and exploitation.

It would not have been possible for Gandhi to preach passive resistance by breaking the shackles of castiest control and practice of untouchability. The three aims of his life were to get rid of alien rule, abolition of untouchability and discarding the discord between Hindu-Muslim.

The latter two were possibly an annoyance to the majority who have been practicing the differential treatment of the fellow members to maintain hierarchy in the society. Gandhi by making his mission to get rid of these ‘things’ redefined the existing understanding of ethics and public morality. For him constitutional framework of equality and freedom is the last resort to create egalitarian society.

A call for truth (satyagraha), non-violence (ahimsa), self-rule (swaraj), good governance (ramrajya), progress of all (sarvodaya) and his own experiment with truth cannot have been possible until and unless he wouldn’t have asked difficult questions. Gandhi was not for conformity. He stood for dissent and disagreement for constructive purposes. Unfortunately, the fate of those mirrors of our society who are imitating Gandhi’s ideals are dubbed as urban naxals. For me they are the true Gandhians, in spirit and action. On his birth anniversary we all should stand with Gandhi.

The article was originally published at CounterCurrents.Org

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#NotInMyName: Youth in Sambhal protest against lynchings and Amarnath killings. /notinmynamesambhal/ /notinmynamesambhal/#respond Thu, 13 Jul 2017 10:05:46 +0000 /?p=1896 “Is it that easy to turn us against eachother?”- read the very first banner from the #NotInMyName peace march of Sambhal. Youngsters were seen

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“Is it that easy to turn us against eachother?”- read the very first banner from the #NotInMyName peace march of Sambhal. Youngsters were seen more worried and came forward irrespective of caste and religion to protest against lynching of Muslims and Dalits. The latest cases to hit the headlines are the killing of seven Amarnath pilgrims in Jammu & Kashmir, Bajrang Dal volunteeers slapping the Imam of a Masjid located in Hisar (Haryana) for not chanting “Bharat Maa Ki Jai” slogan and the killing of 15-year-old Junaid Khan who was stabbed to death in Ballabgarh, Haryana by a mob that mocked his skull cap and called him a beef eater after an alleged argument over train seat escalated.

District Sambhal of Uttar Pradesh came into highlight recently for the communal hype that was busted within few days and the main culprits were taken into custody by UP Police. #NotInMyName peaceful protest once again brought together the love between people amid the differences of caste and religion.

“I was at first doubtful for this peaceful protest, but people came in and we gathered support” said a 12th standard student who came in to show his respect for the protest.

The protest started from Nagar Palika Sambhal and ended at the SDM court where a memorandum was handed to the SDM who was happy to see an spontaneous reaction of people coming together and condemning the heinous acts of violence. People gathered together and expressed gratitude for each other ending the march peacefully.

Filmmaker Saba Dewan is the goldsmith who gave this creative slogan #NotinMyName protest originally planned to be held at Jantar Mantar in the heart of New Delhi and took no time to become the rallying cry. All those who are being targated on the basis Gau Raksha, beef, and religion, Civil Rights etc in India came under these eleven alphabets to show their love and solidarity. The protests are being held all over India peacefully and gathering a world-wide support of journalists, artists, historians, film makers and various secular parties.

 

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[Protest] #NotInMyName | Sambhal | 12 July 2017 /protest-notinmyname-sambhal-12-july-2017/ /protest-notinmyname-sambhal-12-july-2017/#respond Tue, 11 Jul 2017 06:41:29 +0000 /?p=1878 Students and public at large are organising a Peace March in Sambhal. Date: July 12th, 2017 Time: 10:00 am Venue:  Nagar Palika to SDM

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Students and public at large are organising a Peace March in Sambhal.

Date: July 12th, 2017

Time: 10:00 am

Venue:  Nagar Palika to SDM Court, Sambhal

Fore more details, contact: Mr. Rafay Qadri (09119066331)


 

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مرادآباد: ۱۹۸۰ کی وہ خونی عید جو ناقابل فراموش ہے /sharjeelsaquib26062017/ /sharjeelsaquib26062017/#respond Mon, 26 Jun 2017 00:55:58 +0000 /?p=1819 از: ۔ شرجیل امام ۔ ثاقب سلیم ہندوستانی عوام نے عام طور پہ مسلمانوں پر ہوئے حملوں، اور مسلمانوں کے قتل عام کو فراموش

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از: ۔ شرجیل امام ۔ ثاقب سلیم

ہندوستانی عوام نے عام طور پہ مسلمانوں پر ہوئے حملوں، اور مسلمانوں کے قتل عام کو فراموش کر دیا ہے۔ ۲۰۰۲ کے گجرات کے بلووں کا ذکر اکثر سننے میں آتا ہے، یا پھر ۱۹۸۴ کے سکھ قتل عام کو یاد کیا جاتا ہے، گویا کہ یہ واقعات آزاد ھندوستان کی تاریخ کے چند دردانگیز ابواب تھے جو ملک کے “سکیولر” نظام کے لئے غیرمعمولی تھے۔ حقیقت اس کے بر عکس ہے۔ ہمیں یہ ہرگز نہیں بھولنا چاہئے کہ مسلمانوں کا خون آزاد ھندوستان کے ستر سال میں لگاتار بہایا گیا ہے۔ ۱۹۸۴ کا قتل عام بھی سکھوں کے خلاف سرکاری ظلم و تشدد کا محض ایک چیپٹر ہے، کیونکہ سکھوں کے خلاف تشدد دس سال سے زیادہ عرصے تک جاری رہا ہے۔ اسکے علاوہ آدیباسیوں پر بھی اسی طرح کے حملے ہوئے ہیں۔ جہاں تک مسلمانوں کا تعلق ہے، حکومت اور اسکی ایجنسیوں نے یا تو خود ان حملوں میں مسلمانوں کا خون بہایا، یا پھر حملہ آور بھیڑ کی حوصلہ افضائی کی اور انہیں مدد فراہم کی ہے ۔ عوام اور میڈیا کی اس فراموشی سے ایک باطل عقیدہ عام ہوتا جا رہا ہے کہ بھاجپا (بی۔جے۔پی) وہ اکیلی پارٹی ہے جو مسلمانوں کا قتل عام کرنے کی جرات رکھتی ہے۔ یہ ہماری ذمہ داری ہے کہ اس کھلے جھوٹھ کا انکار کرتے رہیں اور حقیقت کی طلاش میں لگے رہیں۔

حال ہی میں پارتھو چیٹرجی نے میجر گوگوئی کے ایک کشمیری فرد کو جیپ سے باندھنے کی حرکت کو جلیاں والا باغ کے جنرل ڈائر کی بربری حرکت کی مانند بتایا۔ ہمارا ماننا ہے کہ انکی یہ تصریح درست نہیں۔ آزاد ھندوستان نے کئی جلیاں والا باغ دیکھے ہیں۔ عید کے روز مرادآباد میں مسلمانوں پر پولیس کی فائرنگ اس طرح کا سب سے بڑا واقعہ ہے۔ ۱۳ اگست ۱۹۸۰ کے روز مسلمان پورے ھندوستان میں عید منا رہے تھے۔ اس دن مرادآباد عیدگاہ میں ۴۰،۰۰۰ مسلمان عید کی نماز ادا کرنے جمع ہوئے تھے کہ پولیس اور پی۔اے۔سی۔ کے دستوں نے ان پر اندھادھند گولیاں برسائیں جس میں کم از کم ۳۰۰ مسلمان شہید ہوئے۔ ذرا اس واقعے کا موازنہ جلیاں والا باغ حادثے سے کیجئے۔ اس روز بھی ھزاروں افراد بیساکھی منانے اور مظاہرہ کرنے کے لئے جمع ہوئے تھے، اور جنرل ڈائر کے حکم پر فوج نے عوام پر گولیاں چلائیں جس میں کم از کم ۴۰۰ افراد ھلاک ہوئے ۔ اس باغ سے بھی نکلنے کا ایک ہی راستہ تھا، جیسے کہ مرادآباد عیدگاہ کا بھی فقط ایک دروازہ تھا۔ ہمیں اس بات کو کہنے میں کوئی ہچکہاہٹ نہیں ہونی چاہئے کہ ۱۳ اگست ۱۹۸۰ آزاد ھندوستان کا “جلیاں والا باغ” حادثہ ہے۔ سید شہاب الدین جو اس وقت پارلیمنٹ کے رکن تھے، انہونے بھی اس واقعے کو یہی نام دیا تھا۔

بی جے پی لیڈر اور موجودہ وزیر خارجہ (اسٹیٹ) ام جے اکبر اس وقت مرادآباد سے اس حادثے کی لائو رپورٹنگ کر رہے تھے۔ وہ اپنی کتاب “رائٹس آفٹر رائٹس” میں لکھتے ہیں

پی اے سی کے جوانوں نے عیدگاہ میں نماز کے لئے جمع ہوئے ۴۰۰۰۰ مسلمانوں پر گولیاں چلائیں۔ کسی کو پتہ نہیں کہ کتنے لوگ ہلاک ہوئے۔ ہاں، یہ ضرور پتہ ہے کہ یہ ایک ھندو مسلم لڑائی نہیں ہے، بلکہ پولیس نے، جو کہ کھلے طور پہ فرقہ پرست اور مسلم دشمن ہے، سوچ سمجھ کر مسلمانوں کا قتل عام کیا، اور اب اپنے گناہ چھپانے کے لئے اسے ھندو مسلم لڑائی کی شکل دینا چاہ رہی ہے۔

اگر ایم جے اکبر کی صلاحیت اور مرتبے والا کوئی شخص ایسا نقشہ کھینچ رہا ہے، تو پھر ہم مسلمانوں نےاپنے خلاف پولیس کی اس درندگی کو کیسے فراموش کر دیا؟ اس سوال کے جواب کا ایک حصہ تو اکبر خود دیتے ہیں: ” پولیس اپنے گناہ چھپانے کے لئے اسے ہندو مسلم لڑائی کی شکل دینا چاہ رہی ہے”۔ حکومت اور اسکی ایجنسیوں کے علاوہ میڈیا نے بھی پوری کوشش کی کہ اس حادثے کو ہندو مسلم لڑائی کی طرح پیش کیا جائے۔ انگریزی اور ھندی دونوں زبانوں میں یہ جھوٹھ خوب چھاپا گیا، اور ان اخباروں کا رشتہ یا تو کانگریس یا پھر لفٹ پارٹیوں سے رہا ہے۔ ان اخباروں کی یہ ذمہ داری تھی کہ پولیس کے حوالے سے صفائی دیں، اور مسلمانوں کو اس حادثے کے لئے قصوروار ٹھہرائیں۔

مثال کے طور پہ ٹائمز آف انڈیا نے یہ دعوی کیا کہ نمازی عیدگاہ اصلحہ لے کے گئے تھے، اور انہوں نے پہلے پولیس پہ حملہ کیا، اور انکا قتل کیا، جس کے بعد پولیس کو بدلہ لینا پڑا۔ یہ اخبار یہ دعوی بھی کرتا ہے کہ مسلم فرقہ پرستی اصل مجرم ہے۔ مسلمانوں نےاکیلے مرادآباد میں انگلستان سے زیادہ اصلحہ جمع کر لیا ہے، اور انکو بیرون ملک، خاص کر عرب ممالک، سے پیسے بھیجے جا رہے ہیں۔ ایک انگریزی اخبار نے تو ایک جھوٹھی خبر بھی چھاپی، جس میں کہا گیا کہ بی ایس ایف کے چند جوانوں کو بھیڑ (جو کے مسلمانوں کی ہی ہوگی) نے مار دیا ہے۔ بی ایس ایف نے اس جھوٹھی خبر کو فوراَ رد کیا اور پریس والوں کو لے جا کے یہ دکھایا کہ ان کا کوئی جوان مجروح تک نہ ہوا تھا۔ ان اخباروں نے پولیس اور کانگریس کے موقف کا ساتھ دیا، ان کی ہاں میں ہاں ملائی، اور یہ کوشش کی کہ کانگریس اور حکومت کی سکیولر امیج پر سوال نہ اٹھایا جائے۔

دوسری طرف، بائیں بازو کی میڈیا نے بھی، جیسا کے ان کا دستور رہا ہے، کانگریس کی مسلم دشمنی کا جی کھول کے ساتھ دیا۔ اکنامکس اینڈ پولیٹیکل ویکلی (ای پی ڈبلیو) جو کہ بائیں بازو کی فکر کا ایک مشہور رسالہ ہے، اس نے بھی شاید سید شہاب الدین کے ایک خط کو چھوڑ کہ کچھ بھی ایسا نہ چھاپا جو کہ پولیس کی تفصیل سے الگ ہو۔ مثال کے طور پہ رمیش تھاپڑ، جو کہ مشہور موئرخ روملا تھاپڑ کے بھائی ہیں اور سی پی ایم کے ایک لیڈر بھی تھے، اپنے مظمون میں مسلمانوں کو ہی ذمہ دار ٹھہراتے ہیں۔ وہ لکھتے ہیں کہ مسلمانوں کو سعودی عرب سے پیسہ مل رہا ہے، تاکہ وہ ھندوستان کو عدم استحکام کے راستے پر لے جائیں۔ انہوں نے اپنی بات ایک ایسے جملے پر ختم کی ہے جس میں سارا الزام مسلمانوں کی فرقہ پرستی پہ ڈال دیا گیا، اور ہندو اکثریت کی فرقہ پرستی کو محض ایک رد عمل یا “ری۔ایکشن ” قرار دیا گیا۔ وہ لکھتے ہیں

مسلمانوں کے اندر پنپنے والے خیالات و حرکات کو لیکر ان کا رویہ بہت اہم ہے، چونکہ یہ ایک بہت بڑی قوم ہے۔ کیوں کہ ان حرکات کا رد عمل ہوتا ہے، اور ان کا اثر ہندو اکثریت کے رویے پر پڑتا ہے۔

ای پی ڈبلیو کے ایک اور صحافی کرشن گاندھی نے لکھا کہ اس قتل عام کی اصلی ذمہ داری مسلم لیگ لیڈران اور انکے غنڈوں کے کاندھوں پر ہے۔ ان حضرت کے حساب سےعیدگاہ کے باہر مسلمانوں نے پولیس پر پہلے پتھراو کیا، جس کے نتیجے میں پولیس کو فائرنگ کرنی پڑی۔ کتنی صفائی سے ہم مسلمانوں کو مجرم قرار دیا جاتا ہے: معمولی پتھراو کے بدلے ۳۰۰ مسلمانوں کا قتل ضروری تھا! کیفی اعظمی نے ان مصرعوں میں ہمارے اسی درد کو بیان کیا ہے

شاکاہاری ہیں میرے دوست، تمہارے خنجر

تم نے بابر کی طرف پھینکے تھے سارے پتھر

ہے میرے سر کی خطا، زخم جو سر میں آئے

مختصر یہ کہ لفٹ میڈیا نے بھی الزام مسلمانوں پر ہی لگایا، اور کانگریس حکومت اور اسکی پولیس کے گناہوں پہ پردہ ڈالنے کی کوشش کی۔

ادھر مسلمانوں کی طرف سے ایم جے اکبر، جو کہ ایک تیز طرار اور جوان صحافی تھے، اور سید شہاب الدین جو کہ ایک تجربہ کار افسر اور اس وقت ایم پی بھی تھے، ان دونوں نے مرادآباد کے حالات کا نقشہ کچھ اور ہی کھینچا ہے۔ انہوں نے کانگریس حکومت اور لفٹ میڈیا کے بیانات کو سرے سے خارج کیا۔ سید شہاب الدین نے بتایا کہ یہ ایک سفید جھوٹھ ہے کہ مسلمان ہتھیار لے کے عیدگاہ آئے تھے۔ وہ لکھتے ہیں کہ

(۱) کسی نے اصلحہ عیدگاہ کی طرف آتے ہوئے نہیں دیکھا، (۲) کوئی خالی کارٹرج عیدگاہ سے برآمد نہیں ھوئی، (۳) کسی پولیس والےکے جسم پر گولی کا زخم نہیں پایا گیا، (۴) عیدگاہ کے سامنے کسی عمارت میں گولی کے نشان نہیں ملتے، (۵) بھگدڑ کے باوجود عیدگاہ سے اصلحہ برآمد نہیں ہوا، (۶) اگر مسلمانوں کے پاس بندوقیں ہوتیں تو پھر پتھراو سے شروعات کیوں کرتے؟

ایم جے اکبر اپنی کتاب “رائٹس آفٹر رائٹس” میں لکھتے ہیں

مرادآباد کا حادثہ سیدھے طور پہ پولیس کے ظلم و تشدد کا معاملہ ہے۔ پولیس نے اپنا غصہ ان ہزاروں مسلمانوں پہ نکالا جو کے اپنے خوشی کے دن نماز پڑھنے کو جمع ھوئے تھے۔ اس فائرنگ اور اس کے بعد بھگدڑ میں سیکڑوں ھلاک ھوئے، جن میں کئی بچے بھی شامل تھے۔ سیکڑوں زخمی ھوئے جنہیں موت آہستہ آہستہ نصیب ہوئی۔ مرادآباد کے ہندو اور مسلمان دونوں بتا رہے ہیں کہ یہ کوئی فرقہ وارانہ فساد نہیں تھا، بلکہ پولیس اور مسلمانوں کے بیچ کی لڑائی تھی۔ مگر پولیس نے اپنے مظالم پر پردہ ڈالنے کے لئے ایک جھوٹھی کہانی بنائی تاکہ عیدگاہ کہ واقعات سے توجہ ہٹائی جا سکے۔ مرادآباد میں ۱۳ اگست کو فرقہ وارانہ کشیدگی ہرگز نہ تھی، حالانکہ پولیس نے اپنی کوششوں کی بدولت ماحول خراب کر دیا ہے۔

جناب ایم جے اکبر یہ بھی بتاتے ہیں کہ پولیس پر مسلامانوں نے حملہ فائرنگ کے بعد کیا تھا۔ سیکڑوں کو اپنی نظروں کے سامنے گرتے دیکھ، مسلمان بےقابو ہو گئے، اور انہوں نے ۵ کلومٹر کے فاصلے پر ایک پولیس چوکی پر حملہ کرکے ۵ پولیس والوں کو ھلاک کر دیا۔ لیکن غور کرنے کی بات یہ ہے کہ ۵ کلومٹر کے راستہ میں کسی ہندو گھر یا دکان کو ہاتھ نہیں لگایا گیا۔ یہ ایک فرقہ وارانہ فساد نہیں تھا، بلکہ ایک سفاک پولیس فورس کا ایک ظالمانہ حملہ تھا۔

اگر کسی انسان کا دماغی توازن برقرار ہے تو وہ ان دونوں حضرات کے اس دعوے سے اتفاق رکھیگا کہ یہ پولیس کے ہاتھوں مسلمانوں کا ایک عظیم قتل عام تھا۔ یہ بہت افسوسناک بات ہے کہ ہم اس حملے کو فراموش کر چکے ہیں۔ ساتھ ہی ہم یہ بھی فراموش کر چکے ہیں کہ میڈیا اور خصوصی طور پہ لفٹ میڈیا نے کیسے کھلی مسلم دشمنی کا مظاہرہ کیا تھا۔ ھندوستان کی اقلیت قوموں کو، اور باالخصوص مسلم اقلیت کو یہ سمجھنا ضروری ہے کہ کانگریس اور اس کے لفٹ حمایتی تاریخ میں کبھی بھی “سکیولر” نہیں رہے ہیں۔ اور ان کی فرقہ وارانہ فطرت کبھی اہل نظر سے چھپی نہیں رھی ھے۔

آج پھر سے عید کا دن ہے۔ آج ہمیں ان شہیدوں کو ضرور یاد کرنا چاہئے جو کے کانگریس حکومت کی پولیس کی گولیوں کا شکار بنے۔ اگر ہم صرف بھاجپا کے گناہوں کو ہی یاد رکھینگے، اور صرف ان سے ہی بچنا چاہینگے، تو ہم ان “سکیولر” پارٹیوں کے مظالم، منافقت اور اسلام دشمنی کو فراموش کر دینگے، اور واپس کانگریس اور لفٹ کے چنگل میں پھنس جائینگے۔ یاد رکھیں کہ بھاجپا نے تو حال ہی میں اقتدار حاصل کرکے مسلمانوں کے خلاف اپنے منصوبوں کو عملی جامہ پہنانا شروع کیا۔ پچھلے ستر سال میں ہم مسلمانوں کی بدحالی کی ذمہ دار کانگریس اور لفٹ کی حکومتیں ہیں۔

دونوں مصنف جواہرلعل نہرو یونورسٹی(جے این یو) میں جدید ھندوستانی تاریخ کے شعبہ میں پی ایچ ڈی کر رہے ہیں

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अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय: एक अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान | मिर्ज़ा असमर बेग /beg19062017/ /beg19062017/#respond Mon, 19 Jun 2017 07:26:05 +0000 /?p=1766 नोट: यह लेख दारुलमुसन्नेफीन शिबली एकैडमी के पत्र “मआरिफ़” के जून 2017 अंक में (पृष्ठ 454-460) उर्दू में प्रकाशित हुआ है. अवाम इन्डिया के

The post अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय: एक अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान | मिर्ज़ा असमर बेग appeared first on Awaam India.

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नोट: यह लेख दारुलमुसन्नेफीन शिबली एकैडमी के पत्र “मआरिफ़” के जून 2017 अंक में (पृष्ठ 454-460) उर्दू में प्रकाशित हुआ है. अवाम इन्डिया के लिए इसका अनुवाद मुहम्मद नवेद अशरफ़ी ने किया है.  

भारतीय मुसलमानों की अहम पूँजी अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय आज़ादी के बाद से विभिन्न मसलों से दो-चार हो रहा है और अपने अस्तित्व की जंग लड़ रहा है. इस समय ख़ास तौर पर यह संस्थान बहुत नाज़ुक दौर से गुज़र रहा है. अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय का अल्पसंख्यक चरित्र उच्चतम न्यायालय में विमर्श-अधीन है. पिछली [यूपीए] सरकार ने उच्चतम न्यायलय में एएमयू के अल्पसंख्यक चरित्र की हिमायत की थी. इसके विपरीत मौजूदा सरकार एएमयू और जामिया मिलिया इस्लामिया के अल्पसंख्यक चरित्र के ख़िलाफ़ है. सरकार के महाधिवक्ता (अटॉर्नी जनरल) का कहना है कि एक धर्मनिरपेक्ष देश की सरकार कोई अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान स्थापित नहीं कर सकती. इसी कारण वर्तमान सरकार 1967 की पांच सदस्यीय पीठ के निर्णय और 2005 के इलाहाबाद उच्च न्यायलय के उस निर्णय से सहमत है जिसमे यह स्थापित किया गया है कि एएमयू एक अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान नहीं है. सरकार के इस फैसले ने बहुत नाज़ुक परिस्थितियाँ पैदा कर दी हैं.

इस विमर्श में सबसे महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न यह है कि अल्पसंख्यकों को विशेष अधिकार क्यूँ दिए गए हैं? भारतीय संविधान के अनुच्छेद 29 में किसी विशेष संस्कृति, लिपि तथा भाषा के संरक्षण का अधिकार दिया गया है. यह संरक्षण सबसे बहतर तरीक़े से एक अल्पसंख्यक शिक्षण संस्थान में ही हो सकता है. संविधान का अनुच्छेद 30(1) अल्पसंख्यकों को यह अधिकार देता है कि वे अपनी मर्ज़ी के शिक्षण संस्थान स्थापित करें और चलायें. भारत में अधिकतर अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान भाषाई अल्पसंख्यकों के हैं. देश में सैंकड़ों सिन्धी, तमिल, तेलुगु और गुजरती अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान हैं. एक अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान में उस को स्थापित करने वाले अल्पसंख्यक वर्ग के लिए सीटें आरक्षित की जा सकती हैं. भारतीय संविधान का अनुच्छेद 15(5) अल्पसंख्यक संस्थानों को यह छूट देता है कि वे अनुसूचित जाति, अनुसूचित जनजाति और अन्य पिछड़ा वर्ग के लिए आरक्षण न रखें.

अनुच्छेद 30(2) के अंतर्गत शिक्षण संस्थानों को सहायता/अनुदान प्रदान करते समय राज्य अल्पसंख्यक संस्थानों के साथ पक्षपात नहीं कर सकता. उच्चतम न्यायालय पहले ही यह स्पष्ट कर चुका है कि अनुच्छेद 30 में जिन शिक्षण संस्थानों की बात की गयी है उनमें विश्वविद्यालय भी शामिल हैं और अल्पसंख्यक अपने इदारों को अपनी मर्ज़ी से जिस तरह चलाना चाहें, चला सकते हैं. इस प्रकार एक अल्पसंख्यक वर्ग यदि चाहे तो एक विश्वविद्यालय बना सकता है जो सरकारी निगरानी में काम करेगा और उसकी डिग्रियाँ दूसरे विश्विद्यालय की डिग्रियों के बराबर होंगी. उच्चतम न्यायालय का मानना है कि संविधान के ये प्रावधान अल्पसंख्यकों की सुरक्षा के लिए बहुत अहम हैं.

1967 के अज़ीज़ बाशा मामले में उच्चतम न्यायालय ने कहा था कि गवर्नर जनरल ने अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय को स्थापित किया था इसलिए मुसलमानों को इसके प्रशासन या देख-रेख का कोई अधिकार नहीं है. यह एक अजीब बात है कि इस मुक़दमे में एएमयू का पक्ष सुने बिना ही सर्वोच्च न्यायलय ने उसके ख़िलाफ़ फ़ैसला सुना दिया. न्यायालय की यह दलील अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्विद्यालय अधिनियम 1920 को आधार बनाकर दी गयी थी. न्यायालय का यह मानना था कि मुसलमानों ने अपनी यूनिवर्सिटी की डिग्रियों की मान्यता के बदले में  अपने अल्पसंख्यक चरित्र को क़ुर्बान कर दिया था.

अज़ीज़ बाशा केस ने जो संदेह पैदा किये थे 1981 के अधिनियम ने उनको दूर कर दिया था. देश की विधायिका ने यह माना था कि [1920 के अधिनियम में] पार्लियामेंट ने सिर्फ़ एएमयू को क़ानूनी हैसियत प्रदान की थी और वास्तव में इसे मुसलमानों ने ही स्थापित किया था. पार्लियामेंट ने यह भी स्पष्ट किया था कि मुहम्मदन एंग्लो-ओरिएण्टल कॉलेज और अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम यूनिवर्सिटी दोनों एक हैं. इस लिए आज भी यह कहना कि अज़ीज़ बाशा का फ़ैसला अभी भी अच्छा क़ानून है, ग़लत होगा. लेकिन 2005 में इलाहाबाद उच्च न्यायालय ने भारतीय संसद के  1981 वाले संशोधन को रद्द कर दिया. हालाँकि भारतीय संसद द्वारा बनाये गए क़ानून की संवैधानिक वैधता को जानने का केवल एक तरीक़ा यह है कि संसद ने जिस विषय पर क़ानून बनाया है वह राज्य की विधानसभा के कार्यक्षेत्र में न हो. एएमयू को संविधान की सातवीं अनुसूची की संघीय सूची में क्रम संख्या 63 पर विशेष रूप से स्थान दिया गया है इसलिए इस के बारे में संसद की विधायी शक्तियों को लेकर सवाल नहीं उठाया जा सकता है. यह सवाल अज़ीज़ बाशा मामले में भी नहीं उठा था लेकिन इलाहाबाद उच्च न्यायालय ने 2005 में यह नया सवाल खड़ा कर के संसद की विधायी शक्ति को सीमित करने का प्रयास किया है. बहुत से मुक़दमों में सर्वोच्च न्यायालय के फ़ैसलों को संसद ने रद्द किया है. अभी हाल ही, महमूदाबाद के राजा के हक़ में जो फ़ैसला माननीय सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने किया था, उसे सरकार ने एक अध्यादेश के ज़रिए रद्द कर दिया. कुछ दिनों पहले वोडाफ़ोन के मामले में सर्वोच्च न्यायालय के फैसले को संसद ने एक संशोधन द्वारा बदल दिया था. इलाहाबाद उच्च न्यायालय के 2005 के फ़ैसले ने 1981 के संशोधन को निरस्त करके संविधान के एक महत्वपूर्ण प्रावधान का उल्लंघन किया है.

यह भी पढ़ें: ए.एम.यू के प्रोफ़ेसर आफ़ताब आलम का ‘इंडियन एक्सप्रेस’ में प्रकाशित लेख: Minority Status? 

भारतीय संसद को यह अनुमति नहीं है कि वह कोई ऐसा क़ानून बनाये जो नागरिकों के मौलिक अधिकारों से टकराए, किन्तु नागरिकों के मौलिक अधिकारों के सुरक्षा के लिए संसद को हर तरह के क़ानून बनाने का हक़ है. 1920 का अधिनियम एक ऐसा क़ानून था जो विधायिका ने मुसलमानों के मौलिक अधिकारों को बढ़ावा देने के लिए बनाया था. इसी तरह के दूसरे क़ानून कई राज्यों में अल्पसंख्यक विश्वविद्यालयों को क़ानूनी दर्जा देने के लिए पारित किये गए. यूजीसी अधिनियम-1956 की धारा 3 के तहत मानव संसाधन विकास मंत्रालय ने डीम्ड विश्वविद्यालय स्थापित किए.

इस पर कोई मतभेद नहीं है कि  मौलिक अधिकार कभी भी रद्द नहीं किये जा सकते. अज़ीज़ बाशा मामले में उच्चतम न्यायलय ने यह ग़लत फ़ैसला किया कि मुसलमानों ने अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय के निज़ाम को चलाने का अधिकार सरकार को सौंप दिया था. इसका मतलब यह हुआ कि कोई भी अल्पसंख्यक समूह अपनी यूनिवर्सिटी स्थापित नहीं कर सकता क्यूंकि उसको क़ानूनी दर्जा सरकार ही दे सकती है और ऐसा करते ही वह सरकारी इदारा हो जाएगा. न्यायालय का यह कहना ऐसा ही है कि किसी के बच्चे की पैदाइश के बाद उस का पंजीकरण नगरपालिका में ही हो सकता है और जब वो ऐसा करे तो सरकार यह कहे कि उसने उसके जन्म का पंजीकरण सरकार के साथ किया है इस लिए यह बच्चा अब सरकार का हो गया. लेकिन अगर अज़ीज़ बाशा केस के उस फैसले को सही मान भी लिया जाये तो उसे उच्चतम न्यायालय की उस से बड़ी पीठ ने निरस्त कर दिया है. 1974 के सेंट ज़ेविअर्स मामले में उच्चतम न्यायालय ने कहा था कि अल्पसंख्यकों की कोई एक पीढ़ी उसकी दूसरी पीढ़ी के मौलिक अधिकारों की मांग वापस नहीं ले सकती.

ऐतिहासिक पृष्ठभूमि:

1857 के बाद सर सय्यद अहमद खान को यक़ीन हो गया था कि अँगरेज़ अब भारत से जल्दी जाने वाले नहीं हैं और सरकार में शामिल होने का रास्ता केवल शिक्षा के ज़रिए है. इसलिए सर सय्यद और उनके साथियों ने ‘सोसाइटी फ़ॉर द डिफ्युज़न ऑफ़ वेस्टर्न लर्निंग एमंग मुस्लिम्स’ का गठन किया. इस के बाद उन्होंने मुसलमानों के शैक्षिक पिछड़ेपन पर लोगों से लेख लिखवाए. 32 लोगों ने लेख भेजे और कई ने यह लिखा कि मुसलमान सरकारी शिक्षा और सरकारी संस्थानों का उचित उपयोग नहीं कर रहे हैं. ऐसा इसलिए है क्योंकि मुसलमानों को यह यक़ीन है कि अगर वो उन सरकारी इदारों में जायेंगे जहाँ धार्मिक शिक्षा नहीं दी जाती है तो धर्म से उनका लगाव कम हो जाएगा. इस लिए एक ऐसे इदारे की ज़रुरत है जहाँ साथ-साथ धार्मिक शिक्षा भी दी जाए. लेकिन इस तरह की शिक्षा मुसलमानों को केवल अपने ही इदारे में दी जा सकती है.  इसलिए उन्होंने ज़िला कलेक्टर से यूनिवर्सिटी बनाने की अनुमति मांगी.

उन्होंने मुसलमानों से कहा कि वे धीरे-धीरे इस ओर आगे बढ़ें. पहले एक स्कूल बनायें, फिर एक कॉलेज और उसके बाद एक यूनिवर्सिटी. इसलिए पहले एक स्कूल बनाया गया जो 1877 में कॉलेज बन गया जिस का नाम मुहम्मदन एंग्लो-ओरिएण्टल कॉलेज था. कॉलेज के उद्घाटन समारोह में वायसराय की उपस्थिति में सर सय्यद ने स्पष्ट कर दिया था कि उनका इरादा एक यूनिवर्सिटी बनाने का है. इस इरादे का इज़हार उस के बाद हर साल वायसराय मौजूदगी में होता था. सरकार ने भी कॉलेज को यूनिवर्सिटी बनाने के मंसूबे की हिमायत की थी.

1898 में सर सय्यद का निधन हो गया. शोक सभा में यह कहा गया कि सर सय्यद के लिए भरपूर श्रद्धांजली यह होगी कि एक यूनिवर्सिटी क़ायम की जाए. इस के लिए सरकारी सहायता आवश्यक थी. सरकार ने मुसलमानों से कहा कि वे इसके लिए तीस लाख रूपये जमा करें. उस समय यह बड़ी पूँजी थी लेकिन किसी प्रकार इसे जमा किया गया और 1920 में ‘अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम यूनिवर्सिटी एक्ट’ पास किया गया. इस अधिनियम के साथ 124 लोगों की एक सूची है जो इस के संस्थापक सदस्य (founding members) हैं और ये सभी मुसलमान हैं. अधिनियम में यह भी कहा गया है कि मुसलमान विद्यार्थियों के लिए धार्मिक शिक्षा की बाध्यता होगी और मुस्लिम लड़कियों के लिए पर्दा का माकूल इंतेज़ाम होगा. यूनिवर्सिटी की सर्वोच्च प्रशासनिक कौंसिल जिसका नाम ‘कोर्ट’ होगा, उसके सभी सदस्य मुसलमान होंगे और वही कुलपति (वाइस-चांसलर) को नियुक्त करेंगे. इस तरह यह स्पष्ट है कि वो एक मुस्लिम इदारा था जो 1920 में कॉलेज से यूनिवर्सिटी बना. क्यूंकि धार्मिक शिक्षा की बाध्यता 1920 के क़ानून का हिस्सा थी और यह भारतीय संविधान के अनुच्छेद 28(3) ख़िलाफ़ थी, जिसमे यह कहा गया है कि किसी इंसान को जबरन धार्मिक शिक्षा उस शिक्षण संस्थान में नहीं दी जा सकती जो सरकार से अनुदान लेता हो. इसलिए एएमयू एक्ट को 1951 में संशोधित किया गया, धार्मिक शिक्षा को ‘ऐच्छिक’ कर दिया गया. महत्त्वपूर्ण बात यह है कि धार्मिक शिक्षा को ख़त्म नहीं किया गया. इसका मतलब यह है कि यदि संसद इसे अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान न समझती तो ऐच्छिक धार्मिक शिक्षा पर भी रोक लगा देती.

1965 तक कोई मसला सामने नहीं आया था. 1965 में अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय में ‘इंटरनल’ विद्यार्थियों के लिए आरक्षण पचहत्तर (75) प्रतिशत से घटाकर पचास (50) प्रतिशत कर दिया गया. इस फैसले का एएमयू में बहुत विरोध हुआ और हिंसा भी हुई. तत्कालीन कुलपति यावरजंग पर भी हमला हुआ. ऐसी परिस्थितियों में सरकार ने विश्वविद्यालय पर एक अध्यादेश लागू कर दिया. यूनिवर्सिटी कोर्ट और एग्जीक्यूटिव कौंसिल (कार्यकारी मण्डल) को राष्ट्रपति के नुमाइन्दों से भर दिया गया.

कुछ मुसलमान यूनिवर्सिटी से मशविरा किये बिना सर्वोच्च न्यायालय चले गए. अज़ीज़ बाशा उनमें से एक थे. 1968 के फैसले में सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने कहा कि, ‘क्यूंकि हिंदुस्तान के मुसलमानों ने नहीं, बल्कि देश की तत्कालीन विधायिका ने एएमयू की स्थापना की है, इसलिए उसको ही इसकी बागडोर का हक़ है’.

इस फैसले के बाद ए.एम.यू. के पूर्वछात्रों और शुभचिंतकों ने ए.एम.यू. के अल्पसंख्यक चरित्र को बहाल करने के लिए एक आन्दोलन चलाया. यह आन्दोलन 1981 तक चला जब सरकार ने उनकी मांगो को स्वीकार कर लिया. 1981 में ए.एम.यू. एक्ट में धारा 5(2)(c) को जोड़ा गया. यह अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्विद्यालय को अधिकृत करता है कि वह मुसलमानों की संस्कृति और शिक्षा के विकास और प्रगति के लिए काम करे. ए.एम.यू. कोर्ट के अधिकारों को भी बहाल कर दिया गया और वह एक बार फिर विश्वविद्यालय की सर्वोच्च प्रशासनिक इकाई हो गया. 1981 के बाद यह बिलकुल स्पष्ट हो गया कि ए.एम.यू. एक अल्पसंख्यक शैक्षणिक संस्थान है.

इस के बाद यह कहना कि ए.एम.यू. अल्पसंख्यक इदारा नहीं है, अनुच्छेद 30 के दायरे को सीमित करना है. 2002 में सर्वोच्च न्यायालय की ग्यारह सदस्यीय पीठ ने टी.एम.ए. पाई फाउंडेशन केस में साफ़ कहा था कि “अपनी पसंद का शैक्षिक संस्थान” जो भारतीय संविधान के अनुच्छेद 30 में मौजूद है, उसमे ‘यूनिवर्सिटी’ भी शामिल है. यहाँ तक कि अज़ीज़ बाशा केस में भी सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने मान लिया था कि इस जुमले के मतलब में यूनिवर्सिटी शामिल है. इस लिए एक केंद्रीय विश्विद्यालय भी एक अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान हो सकता है यदि उसको मान्यता देने वाला क़ानून संसद ने पारित किया हो. तत्कालीन मानव संसाधन विकास मंत्री स्मृति ईरानी ने जनवरी 2016 में कहा था कि अलीगढ़ और जामिआ विश्वविद्यालय चूँकि संसद ने स्थापित किये थे, इसलिए ये अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान नहीं हैं. यह कहते समय उनके दिमाग़ में कदाचित टी.एम.आई. पाई केस का फ़ैसला या उस तरह के दूसरे फ़ैसले नहीं थे.

और अधिक पढ़ें: अमुवि के प्रोफ़ेसर आफ़ताब आलम का ‘इंडियन एक्सप्रेस’ में प्रकाशित लेख: A University can be a Minority Institution

इसके अतिरिक्त किसी किसी इदारे के अल्पसंख्यक चरित्र को परखने का तरीक़ा केवल क़ानून को देखना नहीं होता है बल्कि इस सिलसिले में उस की ऐतिहासिक पृष्ठभूमि को भी देखना आवश्यक है. यह बिंदु माननीय सर्वोच्च न्यायालय के 1993 के सेंट स्टीफेंस मामले में स्पष्ट कर दिया गया है. न्यायालय ने सेंट स्टीफेंस को अल्पसंख्यक इदारा माना था क्यूंकि उस ने अपना ईसाई किरदार बरक़रार रखा था जो उसके नाम, निशान,  गिरजा, और वहां दी जाने वाली शिक्षा से उजागर होता है. यदि यही तरीक़ा यह निर्धारित करने का है कि कोई इदारा अल्पसंख्यक है या नहीं, तो अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय एक अप्ल्संख्यक संस्थान है. सर्वोच्च न्यायालय भी 1981 में ए.एम.यू. की जामा मस्जिद की महत्ता को स्वीकारते हुए ए.एम.यू के अल्पसंख्यक चरित्र को मान चुका है.

ए.एम.यू. की आरक्षण नीति:

धीरे-धीरे ए.एम.यू. प्रशासन को अहसास हुआ कि ए.एम.यू. में अब भारत के हर कोने से शिक्षार्थी नहीं आ रहे हैं और अब केवल उत्तर प्रदेश और बिहार के शिक्षार्थी यहाँ आ रहे हैं. ए.एम.यू. में आरक्षण का लाभ अब केवल विश्विद्यालय कर्मचारियों के बच्चों और कुछ ए.एम.यू. स्कूलों के बच्चों को ही मिल रहा था. इस मसले का हल निकालने के लिए समीतियाँ बनाई गयीं. यह राय बनी कि पूरे हिंदुस्तान से बुद्धिमान मुस्लिम शिक्षार्थियों को ए.एम.यू. में लाने के लिए उचित होगा कि यहाँ ‘इंटरनल’ शिक्षार्थियों की जगह मुस्लिम शिक्षार्थियों के लिए आरक्षण हो. कुछ लोग इससे सहमत नहीं थे. 2005 में जब यह आरक्षण नीति लागू की गयी तो यह देश की इकलौती आरक्षण नीति थी जिस का उद्देश्य अधिक विवेकपूर्ण और बुद्धिमान विद्यार्थियों की तलाश करना था. देश की बाक़ी सभी आरक्षण नीतियां कमज़ोर विद्यार्थियों को शिक्षा के अवसर प्रदान करने के लिए होती हैं.

नयी आरक्षण नीति, जिसमे पचास प्रतिशत सीटें मुसलमानों के लिए आरक्षित थीं, के लागू होने के बाद ए.एम.यू के कुछ ग़ैर-मुस्लिम इंटरनल छात्र इलाहाबाद उच्च न्यायालय चले गए. कोर्ट ने कहा कि धर्म के आधार पर आरक्षण करना ग़लत है जबकि मानव संसाधन मंत्रालय ने एक नोटिस जारी करके ए.एम.यू. को यह अनुमति दी थी कि वह पचास प्रतिशत सीटें मुसलमानों के लिए आरक्षित कर सकते हैं. इस मसले पर सर्वोच्च न्यायालय 1993 में सेंट स्टीफेंस केस में पहले ही व्याख्या कर चुका है. न्यायालय ने यह स्पष्ट कर दिया था कि किसी संस्थान में उस समूह/वर्ग के लिए पचास प्रतिशत सीटें आरक्षित की जा सकती हैं जिस ने उसे क़ायम किया हो.

अधिकतर लोग यह समझते हैं कि धर्म के आधार पर आरक्षण ग़लत है और इसलिए ए.एम.यू. ने ऐसा करके भारत के संविधान का उल्लंघन किया है. लेकिन यह रोक राज्य के संस्थानों पर लगे गयी है. मिसाल के तौर पर इस तरह का आरक्षण दिल्ली विश्विद्यालय में नहीं हो सकता है. अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान या तो धार्मिक होते है या फिर भाषाई. अधिकतर अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान भाषाई अल्पसंख्यकों के हैं. भारत में सौ से ज़्यादा सिन्धी अल्पसंख्यक इदारे हैं. भाषाई अल्पसंख्यकों को राज्य स्तर पर परिभाषित किया जाता है. इसीलिए यदि मराठी समूह उत्तर प्रदेश में कोई इदारा क़ायम करता है तो वह अल्पसंख्यक इदारा होगा और वहां मराठी लोगों के लिए सीटें आरक्षित की जा सकती हैं. इस तरह के आरक्षण का प्रावधान भारतीय संविधान ने भारत की विविधता को बरक़रार रखने के लिए किया है. अल्पसंख्यकों को अधिकार देना भारत ने धर्मनिर्पेक्षता को बढ़ावा देने के लिए ज़रूरी हैं. बहुसंख्यको को भी कुछ अधिकार दिए गए हैं और उस से भारत की धर्मनिर्पेक्षता कमज़ोर नहीं पड़ती. प्रतिवर्ष 45.5 लाख रूपये हिन्दू मंदिरों की बहाली के लिए ‘कंसोलिडेटेड फण्ड ऑफ़ इण्डिया’ से दिए जाते हैं. इस से भारत का सेकुलरिज्म खण्डित नहीं होता.

अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम यूनिवर्सिटी का मुक़दमा माननीय उच्चतम न्यायालय के समक्ष है और आने वाले समय में इसका फ़ैसला हो जाएगा. लेकिन इस मुक़दमे ने अल्पसंख्यकों के अधिकारों के सम्बन्ध से अनेक प्रश्न खड़े कर दिए हैं और एक जन-विमर्श शुरू कर दिया है. अब यह देखना है कि न्यायमूर्ति खन्ना के शब्द जो उन्होंने St. Xaviers College vs State of Gujarat में कहे थे, कहाँ तक सच साबित होते हैं. उन्होंने कहा था,

“जब तक भारत का संविधान अपने वास्तविक रूप में जीवित है, इन अधिकारों के साथ किसी छेड़-छाड़ के बारे में सोचा भी नहीं जा सकता. ऐसा करने का कोई भी प्रयास न केवल [संविधान में] विश्वास के ख़िलाफ़ होगा बल्कि वो संविधान का उल्लंघन होगा और उसे अदालतें रद्द कर देंगी”.

The post अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय: एक अल्पसंख्यक संस्थान | मिर्ज़ा असमर बेग appeared first on Awaam India.

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Three years of hatred and bigotry against Muslims & Christians | Ovais Sultan Khan /appraisal-of-modi-govt-by-ovais-sultan/ /appraisal-of-modi-govt-by-ovais-sultan/#comments Thu, 01 Jun 2017 13:47:18 +0000 /?p=1412 Civil society and secular parties must fight for the values laid down in the Constitution The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) fought the 2014 general

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Civil society and secular parties must fight for the values laid down in the Constitution

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) fought the 2014 general elections with Gujarat’s 2002 anti-Muslim pogrom famed Narendra Damodardas Modi as its prime ministerial candidate. Openly backed by Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a right-wing Hindu nationalist and paramilitary volunteer organisation, the BJP came to power with a landslide victory. Its campaign slogan was “Achhe din aane waale hain” (Good days are coming soon), which projected that BJP will form a government that is pro-development and pro-good governance. Three years later, good days are nowhere in sight. Modi is now considered the biggest bluffmaster.

The Modi government is majoritarian and authoritarian in nature. The BJP, backed by RSS, has managed to sow the seeds of hatred and bigotry among the masses against minorities, namely —Muslims and Christians. It is now clear that anti-minority violence, the hallmark of BJP government, was never because of rogue elements. In fact, it is the mainstream ideology of the BJP and is appreciated by its supporters. Wearing a mask (or mukhouta), that is saying good things, but spreading hatred and promoting violence against minorities is something the BJP/RSS combine has mastered.

It is an open secret that the ultimate goal of RSS is to convert the Indian democracy into a Hindu rashtra. The Modi government has achieved a lot in this direction. Idolising Hitler and Mussolini, the dream which Hindutva ideologue VD Savarkar saw, is becoming real with the conscious support of majority. He had said, “Hinduise all politics and militarise Hindudom, and the resurrection of our Hindu nation is bound to follow it as certainly as the dawn follows the darkest hour of night”.

The Hindutva ideology, which believes in worshiping the state, has attracted several Hindus in its fold. The level of communalisation of electoral politics has reached a point where mere presence of a Muslim candidate will polarise majority vote. The recent Uttar Pradesh Assembly elections has proved that secular parties have not understood that by abandoning Muslim representation they are actually helping RSS in making India a Hindu nation.

What’s even more alarming is that the sweeping victories of the BJP in the Uttar Pradesh Assembly and Delhi Municipal Corporation elections have convinced many Muslims to keep away from electoral politics. Seeing polarisation of the majority community votes, Muslims have been successfully pushed to punish themselves. Those advocating the cause say that Muslims should concentrate on education without realising that education will not save them in times of targeted violence, pogroms, and discrimination. Participation in electoral politics is the only way to ensure dignified survival of minorities.

Someone rightly said that the Modi government has allowed “holy” mobs to attack and kill Muslims and Christians as though the state is a certified abattoir. The judiciary seems completely oblivious of the need to intervene to protect the rights of minorities. Even after several atrocities against minorities under projects such as cow vigilantism, Love Jihad and Ghar Wapsi, the judiciary has failed to take suo motu cognizance.

The lesser discussed “achievement” of the Modi government is its attack on institutions that safeguard minorities. It has made National Commission for Minorities a dead institution— which has left with no member and chairperson. The commission had not done great in the past, but atleast there was a place for minorities to register their grievances, and the state machinery had to respond to complaints.

The Modi government has succeeded in blocking the thinking ability of the so-called “concerned India” from visualising the greater challenges ahead. The current dispensation is much more grass-rooted than the regimes of Nazi Hitler’s Germany and Fascist Mussolini’s Italy, as both regimes had no such organizations like RSS, backing them.

We do not expect any good from the present government. We also know that there is no possibility that it will change. But we definitely hope that civil society and secular political parties will change their own attitude and fight for the values laid down in the Constitution of India. They must understand that electoral victories of political parties will not save India. They have to strategise, not only to save people who are under attack, but also to save the country. Civil society and secular political parties cannot remain silent against the wrongs committed on Muslims and Christians in order to avoid negative voting by the majority community.

Apoorvanand, professor at the University of Delhi and social activist, is the first to dare to call Modi government’s “achievement” as a war on Muslims of India. He said that the fact that we are so reluctant to speak the ‘M’ word is proof of what has changed in India. Muslims plead not to utter their name for, it may infuriate many Hindus.

Today, naming atrocities against Christians is not considered an “anti-National” act by the Hindu Right wing, as is considered standing with Muslims. It is the responsibility of civil society and secular political parties to make general public understand the need to acknowledge and empathise with Muslims as victims. We should accept that not revealing Muslim identity is not just an omission, but is adding to the oppression. Erasing Muslims from the narrative reinforces a bigoted society’s desire to erase their existence. For opposing this bigoted desire of a section of society, we need to talk openly about Muslims and Christians, not just in select gatherings and brainstorming sessions.

We should learn from the American people, who are taking open stand against anti-Muslim policies of President Donald Trump. We should know that out of 323.95 million American population, the Muslim population share is only 0.9%. We should get inspiration from 20.9 million Americans, who came out on the streets in defense of Muslims, from the very next day after Trump took oath and tried to push his Islamophobic ideas.

As Mahatma Gandhi did, we must boldly call a spade a spade and stand against majoritarianism. Muslims in India must understand that they have no choice but to take the path of “rage, refuse and resist.” Behaving like an Ostrich will not end the storm.

Views expressed by the author are personal.

The edited version of this piece was published in a Citizen’s Report by WNTA, which can be accessed by Clicking Here

Picture Credits: WNTA

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[In Press] Minority Report | Faizan Mustafa /in-press-minority-report-faizan-mustafa/ /in-press-minority-report-faizan-mustafa/#respond Thu, 01 Jun 2017 11:48:34 +0000 /?p=1382 Faizan Mustafa |  April 06, 2017 “Equality to all and appeasement of none” has been the BJP’s mantra, though contradictory signals are now visible

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Faizan Mustafa |  April 06, 2017

“Equality to all and appeasement of none” has been the BJP’s mantra, though contradictory signals are now visible and strangely, the majority community is presented as a victim of so-called “minority appeasement” even in Gujarat where elections are due in a few months. Minority rights are essential in a democratic, pluralistic polity because as Franklin Roosevelt reminded us, “no democracy can long survive which does not accept as fundamental to its very existence the recognition of the rights of minorities”.

Manmohan Singh, as Prime Minister, had said that minorities have the first claim to national resources. Najma Heptullah, former Minority Affairs minister in the Modi Government, in her very first statement had refused to even accept Muslims as a “minority”. Some years ago, the Allahabad High Court held that Muslims are not minority in Uttar Pradesh as there is “no threat to their extinction”. It said there is no minority in India. Even as to the Jains’ minority status, the Supreme Court (SC) had held that minority-majority is a legacy of past and no new community may now be recognised as a minority.

Last year, the Modi government asserted in the SC that a secular government cannot set up minority universities. The National Minority Commission is now headless and has just one out of the eight stipulated members. The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions has been similarly headless for the last three years or so. The Modi government has now asserted in the apex court that Hindus are a minority in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. In a rare move of unanimity, both the Centre and the state government have agreed to resolve this issue together. J&K is currently ruled by the PDP-BJP alliance, so there is nothing surprising in this consensus particularly when Hindus are to be given minority status.

The expression “minorities” has been employed at only four places in the Indian Constitution. The headnote of Article 29 uses “minorities”. Then the expression “minorities or minority” has been employed in the headnote of Article 30 and in clauses (1) and (2) of Article 30. Interestingly, no definition of the term is given in the constitution.


Minority status should be determined in relation to the source and territorial application of the particular legislation against which protection is claimed. If it is a parliamentary law, minorities must be defined nationally. On the other hand, if it is state law, minorities may be defined on the basis of numerical inferiority in the state.


Under International law, minorities are groups that possess distinct and stable ethnic, religious and linguistic characteristics. The crucial point is that these characteristics differ from the rest of the population, and that these groups wish to preserve their distinctive identity even if this identity does not conform to the norms and the values of the majority. Thus, a minority is a group that is numerically smaller in relation to the rest of the population, it is non-dominant to the extent that its values are either inadequately or not represented in the public sphere or in the constitution of societal norms, it has characteristics which differ from the majority group and more importantly, it wishes to preserve these characteristics. Thus, numerical inferiority or powerlessness is the test to determine minority status.

The SC has consistently maintained that minorities are to be defined on the basis of “numerical inferiority”. Since the constitution talks of both religious as well as linguistic minorities, courts have held that minorities are to be defined at the level of the state, as states were carved out on a linguistic basis. Thus, Hindus are certainly minority in J&K and no one should deny them this status. The current case is unnecessary as the law is well settled. The SC, in the D.A.V. College case did hold Hindus as a minority in Punjab. Hindus also have minority status in several Northeastern states.

Since the linguistic basis of state creation is no longer valid after the creation of Telangana, the apex court may re-examine this issue in the context of religious minorities. One approach can be to define religious minorities nationally and linguistic minorities on the basis of the state. But a better approach would be to accept the dissenting opinion of Justice Ruma Pal in the TMA Pai case under which minority status should be determined in relation to the source and territorial application of the particular legislation against which protection is claimed. If it is a parliamentary law, minorities must be defined nationally. On the other hand, if it is state law, minorities may be defined on the basis of numerical inferiority in the state.

This article was originally published by The Indian Express.


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